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This article was published exclusively online in the Christian Research Journal, Volume 49, number 03 (2026).
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Note: Please see What Does the Bible Say About Work? A Biblical Theology of Work, Part One
Throughout the history of the Christian church, there have been various approaches to the theology of work, and many answers proposed to questions surrounding work. Questions have been debated by theologians such as: Is all our work glorifying to God, or only the work done in “sacred” vocations? Is our work limited to our paid vocations? Are our callings in marriage, singleness, or family related to our conception of work?
In the first article of this series,1 I surveyed the biblical data to gain a comprehensive understanding of work. Work is inseparably linked with what it means to be human. From before the fall of mankind into sin, God commanded humans to work: to tend and steward the creation which God had entrusted to them. Along with rest, work shapes our daily lives; and rooted in our God-given, God-imaging creativity, work helps us accomplish our goals, serve our neighbor, and glorify God. Yet, because sin has directly affected work, we experience striking difficulties like exhaustion, futility, frustration, and more. But when Jesus Christ returns, our work will be made joyous again. In the new heavens and new earth, we will be able to work without frustration or sadness.
Having considered the biblical theology of work, it behooves Christians to take a look through church history to better understand how we should approach work today. Many considerations that our brothers and sisters in the faith have wrestled with over the past two thousand years can help inform us and guide us as we seek to serve the Lord and love our neighbor through our work today — whether it be secular work or sacred work.
WORK IN THE NEW TESTAMENT ERA
From the very founding of the church, Christians participated in all kinds of work. To be a Christian did not mean one had to have one specific “holy” vocation, nor were only people with a certain vocation called to be followers of Jesus. When Jesus called His twelve apostles, He did not call the most theologically rigorous men with esteemed positions in the temple, but He instead called fishermen, a tax collector, and other men who had ordinary jobs. These men, having followed Jesus closely and committed their lives to His message (with, of course, the exception of Judas Iscariot), would go on to preach, plant churches, heal the sick, disciple others, baptize, and spread the good news around the whole world. They were called to this very specific ministry by Jesus Himself.
However, not everyone was called to be an apostle or work in a specifically “sacred” field. One would be remiss not to mention the shepherds who were integral to the nativity story (Luke 2). Not only were these shepherds the first witnesses of Jesus’ birth, but they also proclaimed the angels’ message about Jesus to Mary and Joseph (Luke 2:17–18). Later, throughout Jesus’ ministry, there were many other followers who worked regular jobs. In Luke 8:1–3, we read of women who underwrote the ministry of Jesus. Without their own gainful work, they would not have been able to provide so abundantly to sponsor Jesus’ ministry. Simon, a tanner by profession, opened his home to Peter in Joppa (Acts 9:43). Lydia, a seller of purple, used her position in society and income for abundant hospitality, hosting Paul and his ministry companions numerous times (Acts 16:11–15, 40). These are just some examples of the varied vocations that Jesus’ disciples had during the New Testament era.
In the New Testament, we also see a range of governmental officials, soldiers, and those who worked in positions related to the state come to faith in Christ. Conversion did not necessitate leaving those professions, either. Joseph of Arimathea, for example, was a wealthy council member (Mark 15:43). In another instance, soldiers heard John the Baptist preaching in the wilderness and asked him, “What shall we do?” He responded, “Do not extort money from anyone by threats or by false accusation, and be content with your wages” (Luke 3:14).2 In Matthew 8, a centurion — a Roman soldier — demonstrated his remarkable faith in Christ. And, as Jon Bloom, the co-founder of Desiring God, aptly explains, this was particularly unusual because “Roman soldiers were not in the habit of being fond of Jews.”3 Two other Roman soldiers came to faith in Jesus in the New Testament, showing this was not an uncommon vocation: Cornelius in Acts 10, and a man who witnesses the crucifixion in Luke 23:47 (cf. Matthew 27:54; Mark 15:39). Therefore, being a soldier and working for the state were considered to be honorable professions for Christians, provided they abided by Christian virtues.
Refusing to work, however, is out of the question for New Testament Christians. Paul, despite being a prolific New Testament writer, a busy apostle, church planter, mentor, and preacher, also engaged in manual labor to support himself when necessary. He writes to the church in Thessalonica: “For you remember, brothers, our labor and toil: we worked night and day, that we might not be a burden to any of you, while we proclaimed to you the gospel of God” (1 Thessalonians 2:9). And later, he explains how they did not “eat anyone’s bread without paying for it, but with toil and labor we worked night and day, that we might not be a burden to any of you” (2 Thessalonians 3:8). From his own example, he draws out this principle: do not give in to idleness. “If anyone is not willing to work, let him not eat. For we hear that some among you walk in idleness, not busy at work, but busybodies. Now such persons we command and encourage in the Lord Jesus Christ to do their work quietly and to earn their own living” (2 Thessalonians 3:10–12).
And yet Paul gives clear instructions to the church to pay their pastors well: “Let the elders who rule well be considered worthy of double honor, especially those who labor in preaching and teaching. For the Scripture says, ‘You shall not muzzle an ox when it treads out the grain,’ and, ‘The laborer deserves his wages’” (1 Timothy 5:17–18). Just because Paul supported himself through manual labor while planting churches does not mean that this is the expected pattern for all pastors and teachers throughout the future of the church. It does, however, mean that certain cultural circumstances may make additional work a necessity for the sake of the gospel. Many scholars point out that Paul’s electing to work would have set him apart from other philosophers of his day, showing that he was not there preaching to the people to take their money, but because he genuinely cared that they hear the true good news of Jesus Christ.
With a wide range of professions, Christians worked with their hands and worshipped their Lord Jesus Christ. But the distinction between secular and sacred professions would continue to widen over time, causing conflict and confusion about what the role of work is in the Christian life.
A New Priesthood
Just as the apostles were called by Jesus Himself to follow Him and occupy a very particular position in the church, pastors or priests today likewise occupy a special office to which they are called. With the onset of a newly established priesthood that was open to any qualified man, rather than only Levites, questions about the distinction between laity and the priesthood begin to take root.
In the Old Testament, the Levites alone could serve God in His temple — and still, only certain Levites, provided that they fulfilled all the physical requirements, marital requirements, clothing choices, and more (Exodus 28; Numbers 3; Leviticus 21). This restricted the sacred calling of temple service to not only one specific family line, but a subset of that line that fulfilled the requirements set forth by God. Unfortunately, what happens to those who unlawfully serve in God’s temple is not pretty. There are a handful of stories that show any wrongly offered sacrifices, such as those of Nadab and Abihu in Leviticus 10:1–2, or any person not qualified offering sacrifices, like Saul in 1 Samuel 13:8–15, have catastrophic ends. Having such a narrowly defined pool of people with specific and restrictive qualifications made it abundantly clear who was — and was not — called to serve in God’s temple. Not a Levite? Not called. Have a non-Israelite wife? Not called. Not a man? Not called. The question of a “sense of calling” to a holy vocation that we speak of today was simply not a question in the non-Levite mind.
In the New Testament epistles, it is made clear that the priesthood is no longer restricted to one specific family line; it is now open to all qualified men. These qualifications are extensive:
The saying is trustworthy: If anyone aspires to the office of overseer, he desires a noble task. Therefore an overseer must be above reproach, the husband of one wife, sober-minded, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not a drunkard, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, not a lover of money. He must manage his own household well, with all dignity keeping his children submissive, for if someone does not know how to manage his own household, how will he care for God’s church? He must not be a recent convert, or he may become puffed up with conceit and fall into the condemnation of the devil. Moreover, he must be well thought of by outsiders, so that he may not fall into disgrace, into a snare of the devil. (1 Timothy 3:1–7)
This sacred profession is no longer limited to just one people group. By opening the priesthood to all tribes, tongues, and nations, Jesus has given us a small foretaste of His coming kingdom. But there are still some clear restrictions: one must exhibit adequate moral character, not be a recent convert, and be a man, for example. Despite much debate on the latter qualification, Matthew Kennedy, writing for the Christian Research Journal, explains concisely: “The priest must be a man for the same reason that Israel’s king must be a man, because he ministers to Israel on behalf of her divine husband.”4 God is able to choose whomever He wants to serve in His house.
This gracious and incredible act of God to open up the priesthood to all qualified men does, as alluded to above, however, bring about some confusion among unqualified laity. Why can’t I be called? How do I know if I’m called? Am I less than if I’m not called? Here is where the tension lives: when we begin to perceive the “sacred” professions as being “more Christian,” or being qualified as being “better than,” we lose sight of what the priesthood is supposed to do above all other things: serve. This tension is one that recurs throughout church history.
THE EARLY CHURCH
In the early church (roughly the first through third centuries), Christians maintained diverse, honorable professions — both sacred and secular. As the good news of Jesus Christ continued to spread throughout the world, more churches were established, more people believed, and more pastors were called to take up the vocation of the office of the holy ministry. Likewise, many men, women, and children came to faith and served in their respective vocations as changed people. In fact, one of the earliest critics of Christianity, the second-century philosopher Celsus, derided it as the religion of women, slaves, and children.5 Christianity, therefore, was not restricted to the theologically astute or politically powerful; it was embraced as a religion that was relevant to the people wherever they served in society.
The early church placed a robust emphasis on work — just as Paul disparaged idleness, so too did they. In chapter 12 of The Didache, or “The Teaching,” dated from the first or second century, the author writes concerning Christians who refused to work: “But if he wills to abide with you, being an artisan, let him work and eat [2 Thessalonians 3:10]; but if he has no trade, according to your understanding see to it that, as a Christian, he shall not live with you idle. But if he wills not to do, he is a Christ-monger. Watch that you keep aloof from such.”6 Likewise, Clement of Rome writes in his Letter to the Corinthians in the first century, “The good servant receives the bread of his labour with confidence; the lazy and slothful cannot look his employer in the face.”7 Idleness was simply not tolerated.
Continuing in whatever profession one had after conversion was, in many cases, necessary for survival. And although many types of jobs were accepted by the early church, there were warnings and admonitions to leave certain other kinds of jobs when converting to the Christian faith. These warnings tended to be around work that was distinctly idolatrous or morally corrupt. For example, concerning new converts who were presenting themselves for baptism, it was written:
If anyone is a keeper of harlots, let him either stop prostituting women, or else let him be rejected. If a harlot comes, let her stop her whoredom, or else let her be rejected. If a maker of idols comes, let him either leave that work, or let him be rejected. If anyone connected with the theater comes, whether man or woman, or a charioteer, or dueler, or racer, or one who competes for prizes, or an Olympic contestant, or one who plays the pipe, the lute, or the harp at those games, or a dancing-master, or a huckster, let them either leave those occupations, or let them be rejected. If a soldier comes, let him be taught to do no injustice, to accuse no one falsely, and to be content with his assigned wages [Luke 3:14].8
It is clear why these kinds of professions would be warned against; to participate in these vocations would necessitate actions, words, and thoughts that would be contrary to God’s law.9
As far as sacred professions go, the church fathers commanded utmost respect for those who held church offices. Ignatius of Antioch, when writing to the Trallians on his way to be martyred in the first century, says that they should “let all reverence the deacons as an appointment of Jesus Christ, and the bishop as Jesus Christ, who is the Son of the Father, and the presbyters as the sanhedrim of God, and assembly of the apostles. Apart from these, there is no Church.”10 The highest honor was given to those in authority in the church, acknowledging that these leaders were willing to proclaim the message of Jesus and often suffer and die for their faith.
THE MIDDLE AGES
In the Middle Ages, from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries, the perspective on work changed drastically. With the varied influence of surrounding Greek and Roman cultures, Christians slowly adopted a starker divide between sacred and secular professions, privileging the former as being the most fitting for Christians. This is due in part to the rise of monasticism, which became increasingly popular for a multitude of reasons.11 Dedicating one’s life to service in the church was therefore perceived as being a higher calling than all other labor.
Dr. Art Lindsley of the Institute for Faith and Culture summarizes the Christian perspective on work during this period in this way: “Augustine adopted Aristotle’s view that the ‘contemplative life’ was preferable or a higher calling than manual labor. An unbiblical sacred/secular split then emerged in the Middle Ages. Calling was viewed as a spiritual thing, as in a calling into the monastic life. Secular roles were second order or inferior to the monastic life.”12
Eusebius, likewise, spoke of two distinct ways of living, according to author Dr. Hugh Whelchel of Reformed Theological Seminary: “[T]he ‘Perfect life’ and the ‘Permitted life.’ The ‘Perfect life’ consisted of sacred vocations dedicated to contemplation (vita contemplative) and reserved for priests, monks, nuns, etc. [Eusebius] compares it to the ‘Permitted life,’ one of secular vocations dedicated to action (vita active) and entailing such tasks as governing, farming, trading, soldiering and homemaking.”13 Due to the widening divide between “contemplative” and “working” professions, coupled with more attainable positions such as monk and nun, which did not require certain upbringing or prior education, the church hierarchy subsequently became more robust.
Surrounding Greek and Roman philosophies, and a shifting view of work drove the expansion of church hierarchy as well. Dr. J. V. Fesko of King’s College, Scotland, explains,
Medieval Christians believed that the church was part of a celestial hierarchy where everything in the heavens and earth had its place in a great chain of being. The great chain begins with God, then archangels, and angels; this heavenly hierarchy finds its earthly parallel through the sacraments, those who are inspired by God to comprehend them, and those initiated by them. God passes his knowledge and grace down the chain to the angels, who in turn invest this information in the sacraments, and those who administer the sacraments (priests), who then give them to the laity.14
The unchecked hierarchical structure of the Western church would go on to breed an opportunity for nefarious men to climb the ranks and take advantage of their powerful office. By siloing laity from reading and understanding the Scriptures, corrupt church leaders could continue on unchecked. This is the context into which Martin Luther sparked the Reformation.
THE REFORMATION
Martin Luther’s written works had become widely circulated at the time of the early sixteenth-century Reformation. The printing press had made mass distribution of religious works possible, and Martin Luther was the center of a lot of controversy. Although there were many factors at play — theological, sociological, political, and otherwise — during the time of the Reformation, the medieval Western church’s perspective on vocation was one area that Martin Luther felt the need to offer clarified thinking, drawn from the Scriptures.
Luther himself was a monk. He was trained and worked in the very monasteries he would later speak frankly about. Professor of Theology at The Cornerstone Bible College and Seminary Dr. Derek J. Brown explains, “Because of the medieval church’s theology of infused grace, men and women viewed the church and the monastery as the place where the real spiritual work happened.”15 Those who worked in “spiritual” vocations were perceived as being closer to God. Brown continues, “Even the word ‘vocation’ prior to the Reformation referred specifically to church-related callings like serving as a priest or monk or nun.”16 It is this very word that Luther recaptures to describe every Christian’s station in society: vocation. Because every Christian is called by God to love Him and serve their neighbor, they can do so in whatever station they happen to have in life.
Dr. Gene Edward Veith, a Lutheran theologian and professor, explains that the priesthood of all believers — the idea that all Christians have direct access to God through faith in Christ and are called to offer their lives in service to Him — is the basis for a right understanding of vocation. He writes:
[A]ll Christians are called by God to live faithfully in the three arenas of life: the household, the church, and the state. As a corollary of the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, all Christians are called by God to offer up their lives as living sacrifices in all areas of life. This means that all of life, including the most mundane tasks, are worship to God, not only select actions and vocations reserved for those who have renounced involvement in normal institutions of worldly life.17 (emphasis in original)
This perspective fundamentally shifts the Western medieval tendency to privilege religious and contemplative vocations over ordinary forms of work to an emphasis on how we honor God in whatever we are called to do in life.
THE TENSION STILL REMAINS
Today, the questions that lingered throughout church history about work remain, although they take on different forms. Instead of prioritizing sacred professions, our contemporary Western society often outright rejects them as options, seeing them as too low-paid, too emotionally taxing, or too much of a sacrifice. On the other hand, we increasingly find people fighting in the church about who has a “right” to the pastoral office, which is often seen as the only way someone can serve in the church. To prohibit someone from serving as a pastor is seen as a social justice issue or a matter of prejudice. Today, there are countless ways to participate in the life of the church — both vocationally and as a volunteer.18 And with a proper understanding of vocation, we can begin to see how a life lived in love of God and service of neighbor, regardless of title or paid role, can be glorifying to God.
For Christians who carefully look at church history and reckon with the vocations many had at the time of the early church, it is clear that lay involvement is instrumental to the flourishing of the church. Where laity, even with secular jobs, participate in the life of the church, the church grows, and God’s Word is spread.
Lisa Cooper is a graduate of the American Lutheran Theological Seminary. She works as a marketing manager at Paravel Insights and serves as a women’s ministry leader in her church.
NOTES
- Lisa Cooper, “What Does the Bible Say About Work? A Biblical Theology of Work, Part One,” Christian Research Journal 49, no. 02 (2026), https://www.equip.org/articles/what-does-the-bible-say-about-work-a-biblical-theology-of-work-part-one/.
- All Bible quotations are from the English Standard Version (ESV).
- Jon Bloom, “The Centurion: Faith That Made Jesus Marvel,” Desiring God, June 1, 2010, https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/the-centurion-faith-that-made-jesus-marvel.
- Matthew Kennedy, “Christ and His Bride: Why Your Pastor’s Gender Matters,” Christian Research Journal 44, no. 03 (2021), https://www.equip.org/articles/christ-and-his-bride-why-your-pastors-gender-matters/.
- Michael J. Kruger, “Early Christianity Was Mocked for Welcoming Women,” The Gospel Coalition, August 27, 2020, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/early-christianity-welcoming-women/.
- Didache 12, trans. M. B. Riddle, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 7, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe (Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886), rev. and ed. for New Advent by Kevin Knight, accessed August 8, 2026, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0714.htm.
- Clement of Rome, Letter to the Corinthians 34, trans. John Keith, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 9, ed. Allan Menzies (Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1896), rev. and ed. for New Advent by Kevin Knight, accessed August 8, 2026, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm.
- Apostolic Constitutions 8.32, in “Section 4. Certain Prayers and Laws,” The Historic Faith, accessed August 8, 2026, https://thehistoricfaith.com/en/library/ante-nicene-volume-7/ante-nicene-volume-7/apostolic-constitutions#paragraph-86626.
- Early Christians objected to such occupations as acting, chariot racing, athletic competition, and performing music at the games because in their historical context those activities were deeply intertwined with pagan religion and idolatry, as well as, in many cases, sexual immorality and violence. See Tertullian, De Spectaculis, esp. 4–13.
- Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Trallians 3, trans. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe (Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885), rev. and ed. for New Advent by Kevin Knight, accessed August 8, 2026, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0106.htm.
- Some of these factors include: a desire to renounce marriage and wealth in response to Paul’s New Testament writings, Christian asceticism becoming more popular, a heightened sense that Jesus would return very soon, the threat of martyrdom, and more. Read more in “Into the Desert: The First Monks,” in Christian History 9 (1984), accessed August 8, 2026, https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/the-first-monks.
- Art Lindsley, “The Mixed History of the Church’s View of Work,” The Institute for Faith and Culture, September 20, 2017, https://institutefc.org/the-mixed-history-of-the-churchs-view-of-work/.
- Hugh Whelchel, “How Then Should We Work? Rediscovering the Biblical Doctrine of Work,” Institute for Faith, Work and Economics, 4–5, accessed August 7, 2026, https://cdn.rts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/How-Then-Should-We-Work-White-Paper.pdf.
- J. V. Fesko, “The Priesthood of All Believers,” The Gospel Coalition, accessed August 7, 2026, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-priesthood-of-all-believers/.
- Derek J. Brown, “Martin Luther and the Doctrine of Vocation: A Matter of Discipleship,” Credo Magazine 7, no. 1 (2018), https://credomag.com/article/martin-luther-and-the-doctrine-of-vocation/.
- Brown, “Martin Luther and the Doctrine of Vocation.”
- Gene Edward Veith, “The Doctrine of Vocation,” The Gospel Coalition, accessed August 7, 2026, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-doctrine-of-vocation/.
- More on this in the upcoming third and final article of this series.
